Abstract

Tourism can enhance individuals’ sense of wellbeing, generating positive emotions and life satisfaction. These positive emotions are caused by novel experiences individuals have when visiting touristic areas. The COVID-19 pandemic began affecting the tourism industry in late 2019, and tourism activities in the international arena remained severely restricted even in 2022. As tourism mobilities are gradually activated, extracting new perspectives from traditional tourism activities is important. In this study, we evaluate the using patterns of tourism mobilities in Japan and the positive emotions they generate. We focus on a new perspective of tourism mobilities in Japan, that is, how tourism mobilities using rivers, humans, and trains generate individuals’ new perspective of tourism. These environmental characteristics unknowingly affect individuals in their countries. In Japan, the perspective of coexisting with nature is deeply rooted, and for many years, residents have been taking advantage of the benefits of nature. For instance, “Kawakudari” (river rafting) is a popular tourist attraction in Japan. Further, a two-wheeled vehicle called “Jinrikisha” (Rickshaw), which is found at tourist spots, is used in small-scale tours to explore certain areas. In addition, the “Torokko” (Trolly) train is one of the sightseeing trains used to enjoy the scenery. These tourism mobilities are provided as a service when tourists and residents coexist. Based on three unique examples in Japan, we extract the characteristics of future tourism mobilities and discuss the necessary components.

Keywords

Tourism, Mobility, Japan, Rickshaw, Rafting

Introduction

As an industry, tourism has become a major socio-economic factor in both developing and developed markets. Its effectiveness as a source of economic development has resulted in strategic planning efforts that are essential for economic policy. Tourism has influenced the global economy. The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) produces reports on the economic and employment impact of Travel & Tourism in 185 countries/economies and 25 geographic or economic regions in the world (WTTC, 2022). Their annual research shows that the Travel & Tourism sector contributed 10.3% of the global GDP in 2019; this share decreased to 5.3% in 2020 due to ongoing restrictions on mobility and increased to 6.1% in 2021. Additionally, no other industry enables people to travel worldwide and connect across many cultures. As such, tourism can help to understand cross-cultural exchange. The features of tourism include ensuring the well-being of tourists and residents. Research on tourism should explore how tourism experiences are related to quality of life (QOL) as well as the well-being of tourists and hosts.

Sheller & Urry (2006) showed a new paradigm called the “new mobilities paradigm,” focusing on the mobilities related to anthropology, cultural research, geography, immigration research, science and technology research, tourism and transportation research, and sociology, among others. The element of tourism mobility not only explains the components of tourism, but also helps to understand tourism and draws attention to tourist destinations. Mobility is an important factor, as tourism requires means of transportation. The purposes of tourism are diversified: not only to view the magnificence of nature and archaeological sites but also to secure supplies that are unavailable in a home country. Hannam et al. (2014) reviewed what has become known more recently as the study of “tourism mobilities” by examining the materiality, auto mobility, and technologies involved in conducting tourism. Mobility is important as it enhances the well-being of tourists by enabling them to visit various nature and archaeological sites over time as they travel.

The subjects of tourism mobilities differ based on the scale of the movement area, such as international movement, domestic movement, and regional movement. From the perspective of global tourism mobilities, the connections between tourism and geopolitics should be analyzed critically. Bianchi (2007) analyzed the relationships between tourism, freedom to travel, and the geopolitics of security. He argues that, in much of contemporary geopolitics, a western liberal ideal discourse of tourism as freedom is implicit. Therefore, the mobilities used in global tourism are intimately entwined with broader geopolitical issues such as migration, inequality, and climate change. From this perspective, the relations among migration, return migration, transnationalism, and tourism have been increasingly researched (King & Christou, 2011). From another tourism perspective, Sheller, M., & Urry, J. (2004) classified tourism mobilities into four parts in their book: performing paradise, performances of global heritage, remaking playful places, and new playful places.

In this research, we define “tourism mobility” as an activity to enjoy sightseeing while moving by some means. From among the various means, we will focus on three characteristic means such as river, human, and train mobility in Japan, and discuss the historical and cultural factors behind why these tourism activities are gaining popularity. In conventional tourism mobility, attention has been paid to the surrounding natural environment and cultural remains during movement. In addition, the following perspectives will be introduced in this study. One is co-creative activity during movement. In other words, it is the realization of a joint sightseeing experience between the tourist and the person executing the movement. The second is the realization of tourism experiences using transportation methods with historical and cultural significance. The third is the realization of a sightseeing experience by deliberately slowing down the speed of movement to the destination instead of moving at high speed.

Methodology

Hannam et al. (2006) suggested a range of new theoretical approaches being developed across the social sciences to address complex and emergent mobility issues based on the concept of “mobility.” Mobilities are centrally involved in reorganizing institutions, generating climate change, moving risks and illnesses across the globe, altering travel, tourism and migration patterns, transforming the social and educational life of young people, connecting distant people through “weak ties” and so on. In addition, the concept of mobility is discussed as a broad concept encompassing the movement of people, materials, capital, and information in an economic sense, including local processes such as daily movement and movement of places in daily life (Urry, 2007). Bell and Ward (2000) and Hall (2003) illustrated a two-dimensional representation of the key concepts in human mobility in space and time. Tourism activities have been characterized by classification centered on space and time. For example, the crossing of a national border separates domestic from international tourism. Twenty-four hours or an overnight stay is frequently used to differentiate between day tripping and tourism. This classification is highly dependent on means of transportation and future technological developments may give rise to new tourism activities. These means of transportation are common throughout the world, and their usage is the same.

This research focuses on the cultural aspect of transportation, which is the subject, realizing mobility. As a perspective in this research, we first focus on the cultural background of the means of realizing mobility. A cultural feature of Japan is the existence of “guides” who support the means to realize mobility. During travel time, a mechanism has been introduced to enhance the sense of unity with tourists, rather than merely guiding them through tourist spots. For example, bus guides provide services to tourists through activities such as short chats, mini games, and playing videos, which have the effect of increasing the sense of unity with tourists. This is different from how bus guides overseas simply explain sightseeing spots.　Second, we will compare and study mobility in Japan and overseas from the perspective of the source of power to move. In the following chapters we will focus on humans, rivers, and trains as means of transportation.

A New Perspective on Tourism Mobilities in Japan

River Mobility

In Japan, the perception of living in harmony with nature is deeply-rooted, and, throughout the years, residents have survived by understanding and accepting natural disasters while utilizing the benefits obtained from nature. Based on this understanding of the natural environment, the Ministry of Environment (MOE, 2022) promoted the “Mori–Sato–Kawa–Umi project” to “conserve and regenerate the Forest–Sato–River–Sea and connect and support people who live in urban areas and those engaging in the conservation of the Mori–Sato–River–Sea area.”

Deguchi et al. (2016) investigated river tourism using Japanese ships. They reported that river tourism using boat transportation in Japan is common, and it is roughly divided into four types: cormorant fishing, “Watashi” (transportation of people), “Kawakudari” (boat ride), and boat or cruise tour.

First, cormorant fishing is a traditional fishing method using domesticated cormorants to catch ayu and other fish and is practiced in China and Japan. In Japan, cormorant fishing has a history of more than 1,300 years and was originally intended as a livelihood capture, but the captured scenery became an object of viewing. Since the Heian period, there has been a history of visiting cormorant fishing grounds as entertainment, under the protection of aristocrats, samurai, and other people in power at the time (Nakahara and Kitano, 2008). Currently, the position has changed as a tourist resource for a region, and cormorant fishing continues as a tourist attraction in various places. The season for cormorant fishing is from late spring to early fall after the ayu season is lifted. Pleasure boat cormorant fishing operations are conducted in 14 locations on 10 rivers nationwide, including the Kiso River, Nagara River, and Uji River. Nakahara and Kitano (2008) focused on cormorant fishing in the Hasegawa River in Gifu Prefecture and explained in detail the actual conditions of the sightseeing boat business. Hasegawa’s cormorant fishing and cormorant boat building and ship-handling techniques have been designated as cultural assets, and efforts are being made to inherit the techniques (Gifu Hasegawa no Ukai, 2022).

Secondly, “watashi” refers to transportation by boat or ferry connecting the opposite banks of a river or lake. In places where bridges cannot be built over rivers, students and residents commuting to school must use ferries. Now there are fewer “watashi,” but about 32 locations nationwide have opened or been revived. For example, Yamamoto and Kinoshita (2015) conducted a detailed survey of ferry boat usage in Osaka. This indicates that many of the purposes of use are for commuting to work or school, and others are used for practical purposes such as shopping. Some tourists, however, wish to cross the river by boat.

Third, a boat or cruise tour starts at the departure or arrival points of rivers and lakes, crosses the water body, and returns to the departure or arrival points. It is the most used river sightseeing boat transport, and it is conducted over various artificial water surfaces such as dam lakes, ponds, castle moats, and canals. The Hakone Lake Ashinoko Sightseeing Boat operated by the Izu Hakone Railway is famous in the Kanto region and has been in service since 1961. This large boat can accommodate 700 people and service the tour of Lake Ashinoko (Izu Hakone Railway, 2022). There are various types of ships, from large ships with advanced functions to pirate ships, swan design boats, and wooden ships. In recent years, some courses operated by Aquanet Hiroshima have connected departure and arrival points such as the world heritage sites from the Ota River (in front of the Atomic Bomb Dome) in Hiroshima Prefecture to Itsukushima. In addition, the feature of the course connects the river and the sea, for instance, on the Shinminato–Uchikawa excursion in Toyama Prefecture.

In this study, we focus on “Kawakudari” (river rafting), which is among the four types of ship utilization methods peculiar to Japan. In Japan, since ancient times, rivers have been used to transport timber cut from the mountains without maintaining roads. The timber was collected and assembled in rafts, and people carried the timber down the river on these rafts. For example, Fujita (1994) introduces the history of timber transport, which began in the 8th century using the Oi River flowing through Kyoto and contributed to the creation of the townscape in Kyoto. This kind of transportation of timber has now been replaced by trucking. However, from the point of view of tourism, boats have been developed since the 1990s as a means of transportation to experience the nature and flow of rivers (Yoshida and Yoshikawa, 2010). In the river descent, the boat is moved only by the power of the river flow without using artificial power. Furthermore, the ship is historically made of wood and has a warm structure. A boatman who controls a ship needs to recognize the river flow and control the ship to enable enjoyment for passengers, and a certain skill is required. In the blog of Hotsugawa Kudari (2022), the master boatman explains how to control the boat using a “sashi” for new boatmen on the Hotsu River. Recently, the boats along the Hozu River are heated and run as tatami-heating boats in the winter season (Hotsugawa Kudari, 2022).

There are two types of “Kawakudari” that use the flow of the river to move down. One is “Kawakudari,” where we can enjoy going down a river in a small boat operated by a boatman, and the other is rafting, where we can experience the rapids of a natural river rowing with oars. Rafting in Japan has been popular since the 1990s and has spread widely as a casual sport and as a tourist activity. Already, more than 100 rafting companies are active throughout Japan (RAJ, 2022). Rafting is regarded as a sport, and the developed versions overseas are known as kayaking, canoeing, and rafting. In kayaking and canoeing, one or two people operate the boat. In rafting, a rubber boat with a capacity for six to eight people is used. In recent years, the sporty feeling of going down a river by manipulating the paddle has become popular among young people. Kushiro River canoeing is carried out as part of the eco-tourism in Kushiro Marsh, which is in Hokkaido, Japan (Dai, 2008). Ships used to go down a river are not auto-powered; thus, they move from upstream to downstream along the flow of the river. In addition, they are made of wood, and their shape is peculiar to Japan. The river descent may have rapids, and guidelines for safe operation have been established by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism (MLIT, 2022).

“Kawakudari” is exhibited as a form of tourism mobility whereby people can enjoy the scenery down rivers on small boats operated by boatmen, and it is held at scenic spots and sightseeing spots at rivers all over Japan. “Shiribetsu River, Niseco in Hokkaido,” “Nagatoro, Chichibu in Saitama Prefecture,” “Kuma River, and Hitoyoshi in Kumamoto Prefecture” are famous rivers with developed tourism mobility all over Japan. For example, in the “Kawakudari” of the Kuma River, people are guided by two skilled persons, such as “captains” and “Tomohari,” who stand at the front and back of the ship. The ship descends to the hot spring town in about 50 minutes. From the ship, people can enjoy the remains of Hitoyoshi Castle and the beautiful mountains that change their appearance depending on the seasons. As an example of a slow-flowing river in Fukuoka Prefecture, the Yanagawa River is introduced as one of the sightseeing places that use tourism mobility (Nakaniwa, 2009). As such, “rivers,” which move naturally, are used for tourism mobility in Japan.

“Kawakudari” is unique to Japan and is popular with tourists. In addition to being a means of transportation, it also has the following features: First, the boatman controls the movement of the boat with the historically used scaffold, realizing a sightseeing experience by the scaffold movement with historical and cultural significance. Second, the boatman and tourist have the same sightseeing experience through co-creative, united movement in a small boat.

Human Mobility

Vehicles with wheels have been in existence for a long time, with high-ranking people using them as means of transportation. A long time ago, vehicles were drawn by people; however, these vehicles are now drawn by horses.

A “Jinrikisha” is a human-powered vehicle designed to transport people and was mainly used as a means of transportation in Japan from the late 1800s to the 1900s (Gao, 2013). In Japanese, the word “Jinrikisha” comprises three parts: Jin (Human), riki (Power), and sya (car). Rickshaw is an English word derived from Japanese with the etymology of “Rikisha.” The jinrikisha, which is called “the only creation in the flowering of civilization” (Haga 1979), was invented in 1870 as Japan’s modernization progressed. It was the first passenger car that ordinary people could ride in; replacing the traditional two-seater basket car called “Kago” required heavy work. In the latter half of the Meiji era (1868-1912), it was an important means of transportation, especially in urban areas such as Yokohama (Yoshida, 2016). In 1896, the number of rickshaws owned nationwide reached a peak of 210,000. The number of vehicles, however, has continued to decline, falling below 10,000 in 1939 since then (Saito, 1992). As a factor, the number of taxis has increased since the 1920s, and taxis have replaced rickshaws as a means of transportation. In 1938, the number of rickshaws nationwide in Japan was 13,494, limited to Tokyo, but in 1945, the number of rickshaws in Tokyo decreased to 272 (Gao, 2013). In 1970, in Hida Takayama, Gokurakusha is said to have first used rickshaws for tourism (GokurakuSha, 2022). Saito (1979) wrote about the popularity of jinrikisha being used for tourism in several areas throughout the country in 1970. In 1999, the development of a chain of industries using “rickshaws” for tourism began (Ebisuya, 2022).

Currently, jinrikishas are mainly used for sightseeing in tourist areas. Specifically, rickshaws　are as developed mobility services in tourist areas such as Kyoto, which has a harming townscape, and Asakusa, where the famous Senso-ji Temple is located. Yanagitani (2019) points out that in the process of revitalizing Asakusa from the 1960s, which declined after the war, not only festivals like the Sanja Matsuri but also the introduction of mobility services such as double-decker buses and jinrikishas were factors in the reconstruction. The jinrikisha have succeeded in enhancing the charm of the area around Senso-ji and creating the atmosphere of Edo town. Jinrikishas have also spread to hot spring towns such as Ito Onsen and Dogo Onsen, as well as retro cityscapes such as Mojiko, retaining the atmosphere of the Taisho period. A jinrikisha driver pulls the vehicle, guides the travel route, and explains the features of the tourist spots. Jinrikishas are also used at weddings, festivals, and parades by Kabuki actors called Oneri. Recently, a service has been provided in which the bride and groom use a “jinrikisha” to move from the ceremony hall to the reception (Ebisuya, 2022). In addition, the ” jinrikisha” is linked to the “kimono” costume rental. In Asakusa, “kimono” costume rental was started by a long-established kimono shop in 2010, and tourists can be seen taking pictures in rented kimonos in front of Kaminari-mon. Rental kimonos have gained popularity as one item to taste the historical town and continue to contribute to its status as a tourist destination (Yanagitani 2019). At sightseeing spots famous for jinrikishas, there are sightseeing packages that include kimono rental and jinrikisha riding, which can be realized for about 8,000 yen per person for an hour of sightseeing (Waraku, 2022). The “jinrikisha” is unique to Japan and a favorite of tourists. In addition to being a means of transportation, it also has the following features: First, it became possible to focus not only on specific places such as temples, but also on the entire townscape, including nature. The second is co-creative tourism activities, which is a new perspective in this research. In many areas, such as Asakusa, the people who row jinrikishas are not just a source of power to move around; but they also take pictures with tourists while they are moving, explain sightseeing spots, and create tourism together. The third is the realization of tourism using means of transportation that have historical and cultural significance. It is becoming popular for passengers to wear kimonos to remind the days when rickshaws used to work. In this way, the combination of not only the cultural environment but also the means of transportation with cultural value is a good example of tourism mobility in Japan.

Train Mobility

“Torroko” train (minecart) is a type of light railway, industrial railway, and military railway, and it originates from “truck” in English. A “Torroko” train is used if it makes building a road at a large-scale construction site, such as a tunnel or dam, faster and easier, or if a large amount of earth and sand is transported out of a civil engineering site. The “Torroko” train can transport goods faster compared to trucks. The “Torroko” train was originally used to transport luggage and mine products, and it ran on rails laid in places where trucks and ordinary trains could not enter. The construction work for the Kurobe Exclusive Railway began in September 1923 to construct the first full-scale power plant in the Kurobe Gorge in Toyama Prefecture. The width of the rail was made narrower than that of ordinary tracks to pass through narrow places, and three years later, a “Torroko” train with a small vehicle started operation (Kurobe Gorge Railway, 2022). Since 2000, as the deregulation of the transportation business has progressed, transportation methods such as buses have diversified, and many routes have been abolished in the railway business. In the process, tourism transportation has been evaluated as a tourism resource, and sightseeing trains are starting nationwide. Nakamura and Konagaya (2014) classify tourist trains that contribute to regional development and analyze their characteristics and economic effects. In the research, in addition to the attractiveness of the scenery viewed from a running train, the importance of the exterior is cited as a factor in choosing a sightseeing train. Currently, as a sightseeing mobility vehicle transporting tourists, the “Torokko” train is one of the sightseeing trains and has a distinctive exterior to attract attention. A Torokko train is a common name for a tourist train that allows passengers to board a vehicle. One of the Trokko trains is box-shaped, with the upper half open and large windows on the sides to display the outside scenery fully. The Sagano Torokko Train is an example of a previously discontinued line that was revived and operated as a train in 1991 (Sagano Torokko Train, 2022). The Sagano Torokko Train’s carriages are colored in an Art Deco style to create an old-fashioned impression, and the interior is also designed to give a classical impression with wooden chairs and bare light bulbs. In 2015, Kominato Railway in Chiba Prefecture introduced the Torokko train as a sightseeing train. The steam locomotive-like diesel locomotive has a unique shape and pulls four passenger cars and two trolley-type observatory cars. (Sakimoto and Kase, 2017). A “Torroko” train is pulled by a diesel locomotive and moves slowly, at an average speed of about 25 km/h. In this way, people can watch slowly and enjoy different sceneries in each season, that is, cherry blossoms in spring, fresh green in summer, colored leaves in autumn, dead fields in winter, and, sometimes, snowy sceneries. In particular, the Sagano Sightseeing Torokko Train (Matsui, 2015) utilizes the old San-in Train Line and connects 7.3 km, from Torokko-Saga Station to Torokko-Kameoka Station, in about 25 minutes. In each season, people can enjoy the beautiful scenery of the Hozu river valley, such as cherry blossoms and fresh greenery in the spring, rain and the murmuring of the river in the summer, colored leaves in the fall, and snowy scenery in the winter.

The Trokko train is unique to Japan and a favorite of tourists. It has the following characteristics: First, the trokko train is rebuilt as if it were an old vehicle, realizing a sightseeing experience with historical and cultural significance. Secondly, instead of traveling at high speed to the destination, the tourist experience is realized by giving time to fully enjoy the surrounding natural environment by traveling slowly.

Comparison to Other Countries

River Mobility

Overseas, most tourism mobilities that use rivers or seas include boat or cruise tours on quiet waves. Conversely, moving along a steep river entails sport-like lifting. No wooden sightseeing boats are used to descend on rapid flows, as in Japanese river boat rides called “Kawakudari.”

Overseas, many sightseeing boats and cruise ships use ships for tours. Cruise tourism is increasingly recognized as a successful and dynamic subsector of the global tourism industry (Weeden et al., 2011). Weeden et al. (2011) edited a journal paper and discussed the importance of cruise tourism and passenger motivation and satisfaction. Each paper in this journal provides information on the cruise companies, such as the number and size of ships, their key destination ports, the economic income generated by passengers and crew, and key elements of passengers satisfaction. Brida and Zapata-Aguirre (2009) described the evolution of the cruise tourism industry and reviewed the experiences of different cruise tourism destinations. They also described different activities associated with the cruise ship industry to identify costs and benefits for the actors in the local economies. Their study aimed to provide a critical viewpoint on how tourism destinations are transformed by the arrival of an increasing number of cruises.

Cruise tourism, especially on European rivers, has long been the subject of research and has been investigated in detail. Miskolczi et al. (2020) provided insight into the cruise tourism on the Danube River through an explorative analysis. Their results indicate that accessibility is influenced by transport components that may be relevant in overcoming key issues such as low water levels, overtourism, reliability of services, urban traffic congestion, and parking problems on roads. The river Rhine is one of the oldest and most famous tourist destinations in Germany. In the early 19th century, tourism started with the nobility visiting the Rhine valley on their “Grand Tour” through Europe. The river Rhine has been a successful tourist destination for over 150 years, owing to a combination of natural atmosphere and cultural assets in the area. The other factor is its long-term promotion and marketing (Poggendorf, 2017). Poggendorf (2017) stated that the number of tourists visiting the Rhine is currently stagnating compared to tourism throughout Germany, and Kloster Eberbach in the Rheingau area demonstrates how proper heritage management makes a difference. This study analyzes the latest trends in these areas, investigates the area’s strengths and weaknesses, and discusses possible reasons for success in cultural tourism. A cruise along the Seine in Paris to explore the historic buildings, such as the Eiffel Tower, the Louvre, the Orsay Museum, Notre Tam Cathedral, and the Paris City Hall, takes about two hours. Regarding small river ferries, McGrath et al. (2020) highlighted the use of small river ferries, and these travels using ferries introduce new experiences in terms of traveling landscapes. Based on this study’s results, the ferry attracts tourists, as it is a different and practical mode of transport. The river crossing provides an experience of being on water, and the structure of the ferry significantly shapes on-board interactions whilst providing new perspectives on places.

Compared to their use in Japan, ferries are widely used worldwide as part of the public transportation system. However, in Paris, they are mainly used for tourism and are not part of the public transportation system. Bignon & Pojani (2018) stated that the introduction of commuter ferry services in Paris had many barriers. They demonstrated that the competition between ferries and land-based transportation modes is fierce and unequitable. In addition, strict local regulations force ferry operators to maintain low speeds and thus be even less competitive, unlike rail operators.

In China, Li River rafting in the Guilin area is popular. By slowly descending the river from Guilin, we can enjoy the beauty of the surrounding landscape paintings. The mountain peaks on both sides of the river stand tall and have different shapes, and the water flows along the mountains, creating beautiful scenery like a painting. In addition, Sanjiang, which extends north of Guilin, also has beautiful, terraced rice fields and attractive areas where various ethnic groups live. Beyond that, Guizhou Province is also an attractive region where various ethnic groups live together (Abe et al., 2005).

Compared to Japan, the different features of overseas river rafting as a tourist attraction are as follows: first, it does not have the element of intentionally using rapid river flow as a resource for tourism; second, in addition to enjoying the surrounding natural scenery, it is also used to appreciate historical and cultural heritage.

Human Mobility

As a human-drawn tourist car that resembles the Japanese, “Jinrikisha” trishows are famous in Singapore. A tri-show is a vehicle with a sidecar-like attachment next to a bicycle that runs on ordinary roads. Iconic Job (2022), a website for overseas jobs, also introduces trishow’s features in a blog. The trishow is said to originate from the Japanese “Jinrikisha” (rickshaw), and the rickshaw was introduced in Singapore in the latter half of the 19th century. Rickshaws are hand-drawn taxicabs used in colonial Singapore. Originating from Japan, rickshaws were first brought to Singapore in 1880, becoming a major form of public transport during the 1920s (Tan, 2022). A human-powered rickshaw is merged with the bicycle, transforming it into a three-wheeled vehicle with three tires. These “three wheels,” that is, “Tri,” are attached to the rickshaw, thus the name “trishow.” Currently, in Singapore, it is used by tourists as a means of transportation for sightseeing purposes. The licensed operator for trishaw tours in Singapore, such as Trishaw Uncle (2022), shows the tour guide in Singapore.

China is a representative country where rickshaws have spread internationally. Takahasi (1996) explains that it was introduced to China in the late 1800s and became widely used in Beijing, Shanghai, and elsewhere in the 1910s. Rickshaws were originally pulled by horses and replaced by humans. With this form of contempt for humans, they became a negative presence and were banned after independence in 1949 (Takahasi, 1996).

Train Mobility

Since the mid-nineteenth century, the railway system has enabled the interaction of people living in different countries. It finally contributed to the development of the industrial revolution and enabled the reduction of travel time between cities. Some of these trains became iconic for their luxury, such as the Orient Express, the Trans-Siberian, the Ghan, and the Blue Train, and they continue to retain their appeal in international railway history (Browne, 2020; Gross & Klemmer, 2014). From the second half of the 20th century, numerous railways, especially in industrial and mining areas, were abandoned for economic reasons. The recovery of the historic railway heritage and the promotion of railways in a touristic sense have become popular in recent years. Peira et al. (2022) formulated three research questions related to the dynamics of railway heritage recovery, the dynamics of railway tourism, and the relationship between sustainability and railway tourism. Their findings highlight that the railway tourism process originates from projects to restore the railway heritage and possibly maintain authenticity. Voluntary associations, along with their “railfans,” are the main stakeholders who not only preserve the rail heritage but also develop railway tourism activities. Hannam (2014) stated that it was useful to examine notions of heritage tourism, considering the materiality of tourism mobilities. Heritage railways provide a good example of the materiality of tourism mobilities, that is, heritage on the move (Aguiar, 2011; Bissell, 2009; Lofgren, 2008).

A famous example of railway heritage is the Rhaetian Railway (German: RhB: Rhätische Bahn) in Switzerland. The Rhaetian Railway is one of Switzerland’s largest private railways. It has a route network of about 400 km, centered in the state of Graubünden in the eastern part of Switzerland, and it was opened in 1889. It has continuously expanded its routes and now has many routes. It has many tourist routes, world-class resort areas such as St. Moritz and Davos along the railway line, and runs famous trains such as the Glacier Express and Bernina Express. On its local daily route, the Rhaetian Railway operates many trains for both passenger and freight transportation; it is responsible for rail transportation in Graubünden; and it plays an important role in the state’s economy. A part of the Albula Line and the Bernina Line were registered as a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site (cultural heritage) in 2008 as “Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes” (UNESCO, 2022). The Rhaetian Railway is characterized as an adhesive railway, despite having a route network in the mountainous area of the Swiss Alps. By using a lot of loop lines and tunnels, the slope is suppressed to 45 per mil for the main line system and 70 per mil or 60 per mil for the Bernina line and Cool-Arosa line, without relying on the rack type. Consequently, long trains can be operated, and each station on the main line has an effective track length of about 260-300m. Therefore, it is possible to see the magnificent scenery from inside the train, which is a factor affecting its popularity as a sightseeing train. The mountain railway in Japan is realized because of learning the technique of this Rhaetian railway. The Hakone Tozan Railway, which connects Hakone Yumoto (96m) and Gora (541m), includes a line with a maximum gradient of 8%, and it was realized by learning the switchback technology of the Bernina Railway, which preceded the Rhaetian Railway in Graubünden.

Since the 1980s, China has taken a proactive approach to tourism, and the National Tourism Development Plan (1986-2000) has been approved by the State Council. Beginning in 2013, President Xi Jinping proposed the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, and the tourism industry has developed as part of its activities. Furthermore, in 2015, international tourism revenue grew to the second highest in the world (Ishihara, 2018). On the other hand, the national high-speed railway achieved the fastest development during the 11th Five-Year Plan (11th Five-Year Plan, 2006-2010), the world’s longest total length of operation, and the world’s fastest running speed. “The construction scale has become the largest in the world,” reported the People’s Daily on October 5, 2010. Furthermore, the target for the total length of railway operations in China is set at 38,000 km by 2025, and the ultimate target is 120,000 km by the 2020s, with the high-speed rail network covering more than 90% of the population. (Kan 2022). In this way, high-speed railways are used between large cities, and railways connecting cities and surrounding tourist destinations increase tourism.

Compared to Japanese trolley trains, sightseeing by rail is an attempt to see the splendor of the natural environment and the historical and cultural heritage of each place at a certain speed. It is actively used as a means of transportation to visit.

Conclusion

The following perspectives on tourism mobility in Japan were introduced in this article: One example is mobility-related co-creative activities. Mobility is used to carry out the realization of a joint sightseeing experience between the tourist and the person. The second is the realization of tourism experiences with historical and cultural style. The third is the realization of a sightseeing experience by deliberately slowing down the speed of movement to the destination instead of moving at high speed. The nature-oriented and history-oriented environmental characteristics unknowingly affect individuals living in Japan. In Japan, the perception of coexisting with nature and old history is deeply-rooted, and for many years, residents have taken advantage of the benefits of nature and history. “Kawakudari” is widely used in Japan as a tourist attraction. In addition, small-scale tours are used to explore certain areas using a two-wheeled vehicle called “Jinrikisya” at tourist spots. The “Torroko” train is used in Japan as the riverside sightseeing train. Because of the coexistence of vehicle drivers and tourists, such tourism mobilities are provided as part of the services. From three unique examples in Japan, we extracted the necessary components of future tourism mobilities as follows. Tourism mobility in Japan, such as the “Kawakudai” and “Torroko” trains, utilizes natural terrains and comprises tourism activities with coexistence between tourists and nature. Tourists feel comfortable in nature. For “Jinrikisya” mobility, the car owner wears traditional clothes, and tourists sometimes wear kimonos. These costumes cause both tourists and drivers to integrate with the movement activities of the past, and they make the movement comfortable and nostalgic. Combining mobility with the natural and cultural environment is thus one of the elements of Japanese tourism. New tourism mobilities linked to Japan’s cultural and historical heritage should be considered and proposed for other countries in the future. In particular, China and Southeast Asian countries have similar cultures and natures, and we believe that new tourism mobility is possible with the unique cultural background of each country.